DIFFERENTIAL USE OF MARINE SHELL ARTIFACTS IN MORTUARY CONTEXTS AMONG THE SINAGUA, COHONINA, AND KAYENTA (A.D. 800 TO 1300)
by
S. Rheagan Alexander
May 2004
Abstract
Between A.D. 800 and A.D. 1300, the Sinagua, Cohonina, and Kayenta Anasazi engaged in a variety of cultural interactions, including the manufacture and exchange of prestige goods. Marine shell ornaments from coastal source locations transacted among cultural groups, served a vital role in communicating social power and leadership status, and eventually became deposited in the archaeological record. Marine shell artifacts from mortuary contexts have potential to inform on unique exchange practices and social structures. More specifically, the culturally-valued artifact types reflect subtle but important shifts in cultural interaction through time and across space. This study describes spatial and temporal trends in the use of marine shell taxa, mechanical and stylistic treatments, and various artifact functional classes. The resulting description of social power and leadership status reveals the powerful system of intercultural interaction surrounding the use of marine shell in mortuary ritual. After the eruption of Sunset Crater Volcano, the Sinagua made notable use of shell, centered on important sites and associated with temporally and spatially bounded emergent hierarchy.
AGRICULTURE AND MOBILITY DURING THE BASKETMAKER II PERIOD: THE COPROLTlE EVIDENCE
by
Jerry Androy
May 2003
Abstract
The appearance of agriculture on the Colorado Plateau coincides with the beginnings of the Basketmaker II period. However, the level of dependence that Basketmaker II populations had on agriculture remains a point of contention. Several researchers argue that agriculture was introduced when agricultural populations moved onto the Plateau. Other researchers argue that existing Archaic populations on the Colorado Plateau adopted agriculture. The analysis of 30 coprolites from Boomerang Shelter, a Basketmaker II site in southeastern Utah, indicates that Basketmaker II populations had a high seasonal dependence on agricultural products. However, numerous wild plants, including potentially cultivated weedy annuals, also played an important role in Basketmaker II diet. A pollen analysis from the coprolites indicates that Boomerang Shelter was occupied only through the spring to the fall. The patterns observed in the Boomerang Shelter coprolites appear very similar to coprolite analyses from several other Basketmaker II rockshelter sites. The overall pattern indicates that Basketmaker II populations occupied rockshelter sites between the spring and the fall and that both domesticated and wild plants constituted a great portion of the diet.
CONTRACT ARCHAEOLOGY'S CONTRIBUTION TO ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH: A CASE STUDY FROM ARIZONA
by
Nancy Burks Andrews
May 1991
Abstract
American archaeology has changed from a purely academic, to an applied as well as academic, profession. Many archaeologists are not happy with this change, even visualizing it as a threat--a threat to the scientific foundations upon which the discipline was built, or perhaps a threat to tradition--to long-held positions of power, prestige, and authority.
Recently the Society for American Archaeology, the foremost professional archaeological organization in North America, has acknowledged the change and acted upon it. But this change, cultural resource management, has been taking place for 20 years.
This thesis is an exploration of some of the past and present controversy surrounding cultural resource management (CRM) and a subcategory of CRM, contract archaeology. The controversy is essentially over the products of CRM and contract research--whether this kind of archaeology is worthwhile, of scientific value, an important contributor to American archaeology. Using data from Arizona, the contributions to Arizona archaeology from cultural resource management/contract archaeology projects conducted between 1977-1987 are evaluated. The results quantify contract archaeology's considerable contribution to scientific knowledge during this period, and document a shift (at least in Arizona) to a predominance of applied, rather than academic, research.
This thesis is also about the so-called "split" between academic and contract archaeology, or between "pure" and applied research. It is argued that the current rift is the result of the changed social, economic, and political context of archaeological research. This controversy is not surprising, given its roots in American culture, and given certain similarities between Western European antiquarianism and the conduct of purely academic archaeology. Change seldom comes easy, and when it involves money, jobs, and professional status in America, it never comes easy.
POST-RESTORATION ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ON THE MENOMINEE RESERVATION: A FOCUS ON INDIAN GAMING
by
Scott E. Antes
December 1995
Abstract
In 1954, the Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin fen victim to an in-conceived and ill-planned federal experiment in assimilation: termination of tribal status. Termination plunged Menominees into a situation of poverty, dependence and despair. Eventually they puffed together and fought to have their tribal identity officially restored. In December of 1973, they succeeded. Their land was returned to federal trust status, but by this time social and economic conditions on the Reservation had become deplorable. Although Menominees carried on their long-established tradition of sustainable forestry, recovery from termination was difficult and very slow. In spite of numerous physical improvements at Menominee, it was not until 1987 that the Tribe began to realize measurable financial gains. The key to accelerated recovery was reservation gaming, first in the form of bingo, two years later in a "Vegas-style" casino operation. Today the situation at Menominee is admirable and exemplary. Gaming and gaming dollars benefit the Tribe through job creation, education, and cultural preservation. How long gaming will continue to be a viable economic option for Menominees and other successful gaming tribes is uncertain, but the Menominee experience is an example of how Indian people can exert their tribal sovereignty to employ a non-traditional form of economic development towards dramatically improving their standard of living without sacrificing traditional tribal values.
THE ANALYSIS OF FAUNAL REMAINS FROM A PORTION OF THE PLATFORM MOUND AT PUEBLO GRANDE
by
R. Todd Baker
May 1994
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the faunal remains recovered from the platform mound at the site of Pueblo Grande to assess whether the use of the platform mound changed over time. This study was accomplished by identifying the faunal collections recovered from two different platform mound excavation projects and comparing them with the faunal material recovered from the habitation areas at Pueblo Grande.
The first collection of faunal remains came from excavations conducted from 1939-1940 on the platform mound by WPA crews, and the second from excavations conducted in 1975 adjacent to and beneath the west retaining wall of the platform mound by Jon Scott Wood, David E. Ward, and Robert E. Gasser. The collection of faunal remains from the habitation areas was excavated by Soil Systems, Inc. and was identified and studied by Steven R. James (1993).
The platform mound faunal remains come from three time periods: the Soho Phase (A.D. 1100-1300) ; the Civano Phase (A.D. 1300-1400); and the Polvoron Phase (A.D. 1400-1450). Comparison of faunal material from the platform mound and habitation areas suggests that there were differences in meat consumption between the two areas. During the Classic period (Soho and Civano phases), people living on or using the platform mound were consuming artiodactyls and lagomorphs. People in the habitation areas, while eating lagomorphs as well, were not eating them in the same quantities as they were on the platform mound. The people in the habitation areas were eating more riparian species, such as muskrat, which is thought to be a starvation food eaten only during times of subsistence stress (James 1993). Thus, it is possible that an elite class was living on or using the platform mound, while the non-elite or commoners were living in the habitation areas of Pueblo Grande. Alternatively, the platform mound may have been used for feasting that involved different fauna than day-to-day dietary practices in the outlying habitation areas.
A similar comparison between mound and non-mound areas cannot be made for the Post-Classic period. Only one bone was recovered from deposits dating to this period on the platform mound, and no Post-Classic faunal material was recovered from the habitation areas.
EFFECTS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS ON THE ACCULTURATION OF MEXICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS
by
William Paul Baldridge, Jr.
December 1989
Abstract
Many studies have noted correlation between acculturation and education. However, very little work has been done on the social psychological factors that cause some students to become more integrated than others. I present three hypotheses on the integration process's relationship to certain psychosocial variables (self-esteem, religiosity, and extroversion). To evaluate these hypotheses, I administered a questionnaire to 78 high school students, most of whom were Mexican American, in Nogales, Arizona. I gave this same questionnaire to a control group of 70 high school students, presumably representative of the dominant culture, in Flagstaff, Arizona. The resultant data are analyzed and the hypotheses are tested using a variety of parametric statistical techniques. Noteworthy findings are (1) self-esteem is positively associated with integration for Mexican American high school students in Nogales; (2) no relationship is concluded to exist between religiosity and integration; and (3) extroversion is positively correlated with and predicts integration for Mexican American males, but not females, in Nogales.
ACCULTURATIVE EFFECTS OF SCHOOLING AND LADINOIZATION ON FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS IN PANAJACHEL, GUATEMALA
by
Anne R. Baldwin
May 1988
Abstract
This thesis explores the effects of schooling on a group of fifth and sixth grade students in Panajachel, Guatemala, during the years 1976, 1980 and 1982. The theoretical frameworks of cognitive consistency and projection provide the basis for which student responses to a set of traditional belief questions, and their performance on a draw-a-person test are evaluated. It is suggested that over time, the acculturative influences of schooling and Ladinoization cause a reduction in belief agreement and a decrease in the frequency of Indian figures represented in drawings.
ANCIENT MAIZE IN THE NORTHERN SOUTHWEST: APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF VARIABILITY
by
David M. R. Barr
May 2001
Abstract
Zea mays plays a central role in the transition from hunting and gathering to the sedentary social organization of prehistoric populations in the American Southwest. Unfortunately, the most important and basic questions involving maize still elude archaeologists. These questions focus on the arrival of maize and its impact on prehistoric populations in the Southwest. Identifying and analyzing morphological variations in prehistoric corn can obtain additional information addressing these questions. The observed variations in prehistoric maize can then be applied to broader patterns of prehistory and eventually social and subsistence strategies. In this study, I use three different techniques to examine variation in prehistoric maize and make inferences on human manipulation of maize.
Macro-examinations of maize characteristics combined with new radiocarbon assays enable inferences to be made about social interaction, agricultural practices, and trade in the Southwest. Analyses of maize samples from Basketmaker II and Puebloan sites provide new insights about the cultural and ecological factors that affect corn. This analytic approach has yielded additional information pertaining to social and cultural strategies at a regional and spatial level.
The examination of prehistoric maize on the genetic level may hold the answer to the interaction and trade of corn between populations in the Southwest. In this section of research, corn samples from Basketmaker II sites were sent for DNA sequencing in an attempt to compare the various samples and determine if genetic similarities occur. Genetic similarities in maize temporally and spatially, may indicate if prehistoric populations interacted and what, if any, intentional genetic manipulations were occurring in prehistoric maize. Unfortunately, the samples contained severely degraded DNA and could not be banded in the PCR.
The changing mobility patterns of hunter-gatherer populations after the arrival of domestics are a common question in archaeology. Specifically, could the populations maintain the seasonal migrations or did the populations become semi-sedentary until the harvest of corn? One way to examine the impact on subsistence and mobility is the planting of experimental test plots. These plots were planted and left alone for five months to determine the degree of human interaction that must occur to produce a crop. The outcome of the experimental test plots provides insights into the initial impact of domesticates on hunter-gatherer populations both in dietary and mobility issues.
This study has provided new information on the morphology and spatial variation and provides ideas about the impact of maize on prehistoric populations. The macroexaminations have provided data on the pan-regional interaction of prehistoric populations. DNA sequencing provided a glimpse of what the future may hold for maize studies in the Southwest. Finally, experimental test plots and the maize growth has provided intriguing information pertaining to the human interaction needed for corn growth and inferences on the impact of maize on prehistoric populations.
PATTERNS OF SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT IN THE SAN CRISTOBAL VALLEY, WESTERN PAPAGUERIA
by
James Morrison Bayman
May 1988
Abstract
Western Papagueria is a vast region including marine, riverine, and nonriverine ecosystems. Each of these settings contains a distinctive set of economic resources used by aboriginal groups. A primary concern of this study is the nonriverine desert. A major focus is patterns of subsistence and settlement in a portion of this ecosystem-- the northern San Cristobal Valley.
Resources in this setting include leguminous plants and large game (e.g., Desert Bighorn). An analysis of site distribution reveals that leguminous plant use was widespread throughout the upper bajada. By contrast, large game hunting was restricted to areas near rock tanks. Based on subsistence models derived from the ethnographic record, it is suggested that large game hunting was primarily conducted by sedentary hunters from riverine-based villages. Alternatively, desert-based groups exploited a variety of resources including leguminous plants.
Throughout the region, a variety of adaptive strategies were developed that may have included mobility, group fissioning, specialized hunting, and exchange. In general, the use of these buffering mechanisms was more intensive in the westernmost portions of the Papagueria. Although a variety of factors may account for this pattern, significant variables are increased dessication and a limited biomass. A brief review of data from the Northern Tucson Basin, a region with relatively abundant water, reveals markedly diverging patterns of subsistence and settlement.
EXPLORING NAVAJO - ANAASAZI RELATIONSHIPS USING TRADITIONAL (ORAL) HISTORIES
by
Robert M. Begay
May 2003
Abstract
Anthropology uses material culture, historical accounts, and in some illustrations, ethnographic analogies to develop research paradigms about various aspects of Native Americans while largely ignoring traditional history. Consequently, most of the literature available on Navajos is based on a non-Navajo point of view. As a result, today there are hundreds of books that portray Navajo people as Athabaskan speaking peoples with one common origin. Many Navajos disagree with anthropological conclusions that disregard their views and ultimately threaten the very fabric that defines the Navajo as a people. The majority of Navajos understand and accept that even though they are identified by shared traits like language, culture, and social backgrounds they are a very diverse people with different origins.
Navajos also realize that their traditional histories are very similar in many instances, but in many cases do not always agree. One subject about which Navajo opinions vary is the relationship between Navajo people and pre-Columbian people. This thesis looks at the relationship between' a pre-Columbian people (Anaasazi) and the Navajo People. The paper will examine a small portion of Navajo traditional history which lends itself to the subject, and in addition, uses the Navajo/Anaasazi relationship as a focal point to discuss the implications of using traditional history in research from a traditional Navajo perspective. The relationship between the Navajo People and the Anaasazi has become controversial because of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990.
LOOTED ROCKSHELTERS: BASKETMAKER II SITE STRUCTURE, INTEGRITY, AND FUNCTION
by
Adam M. Berg
December 2000
Abstract
This thesis examines data recovered from excavations at Six-Toe Shelter, a thoroughly looted Basketmaker II rockshelter in Butler Wash, southeastern Utah. The focus of my research consists of the analysis of the artifact assemblage, spatial provenience data, and various features and components existing at the site to determine whether aspects of site structure remain in looted contexts, and to what extent archaeologists can reconstruct site function in these conditions. By examining spatial patterns occurring between artifact distributions and features at the site, and through the comparison of my results to the current base of knowledge concerning Basketmaker II subsistence, settlement, and social organization, I develop hypotheses regarding the pi historic function of Six-Toe Shelter.
USING MICROWEAR ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE STONE TOOL USE AT ELDEN PUEBLO
by
Caryn M. Berg
May 1993
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the informal stone tool kit from Elden Pueblo using high power microwear analysis. The two objectives were to determine tool use in relation to subsistence activities at the pueblo and to ascertain whether or not high power use wear is valid for analyzing informal tool function. The sample was taken from proveniences found at the southern portion of the pueblo, including one room, several pithouses and the outlying trash areas.
The analysis included an experimental program that tested informal tools made of Tolchaco chert and black rhyolite in order to develop a comparative collection of polishes and striations for use with the Elden Pueblo assemblage. In addition, blind test tools were examined and the results recorded in order to determine a level of competency for my analytical abilities. Once these experiments were complete, the analysis of the Elden assemblage was undertaken.
Results of the analysis are presented in terms of counts and percentages for both chert and rhyolite tools. I have also presented information on a number of multi-use tools as well as a special use tool identified in the sample from Elden Pueblo. It was found that 18% of the Elden Pueblo tools were used to work wood and 13% were used to process meat or fresh hide. Key findings are that the informal tools at Elden Pueblo were primarily used for scraping in a way that represents a hunting and gathering lifestyle in addition to agriculture. Primary tool uses involved scraping wood to smooth arrow shafts or digging sticks and processing game. Additional uses for the informal tool kit include meat and hide processing, scraping bone, and cutting plant material.
It has been determined that high power microwear analysis is successful for determining use of informal tools and should be applied more often to assemblages in the Southwest.
SINAGUA SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES AT ELDEN PUEBLO: A MACROBOTANICAL STUDY
by
Jennae Biddiscombe
May 2003
ABSTRACT
Elden Pueblo is a significant Sinagua site. This study addresses the changes overtime in subsistence strategies and food systems of the people of Elden Pueblo through the analysis of macrobotanical remains. This study also further explores the significance of Elden Pueblo to the Sinagua people.
Occupation at Elden Pueblo occurred between A.D. 1060 through A.D. 1275. It is postulated that a major drought occurred in the area and temperatures began to cool in the latter half of the thirteenth century resulting in the abandonment of many sites around Mount Elden. It does appear that a warming trend occurred starting in A.D. 950 during the Rio de Flag/Angell-Winona phase resulting in a longer growing season and success in domesticated crop yields. However, the subsistence related macrobotanical remains at Elden Pueblo show no major change in quantity between the Elden phase (A.D. 1150-1250), and late Elden/Turkey Hill phase (A.D. 1225-1275) when environmental conditions supposedly caused the abandonment of the Flagstaff, Arizona area.
A comparison of the subsistence related macrobotanical remains with one other Sinagua site, Lizard Man Village (NA 17957), was conducted. Comparing Elden Pueblo and Lizard Man Village will increase our understanding of subsistence strategies at Elden Pueblo in the Northern Sinagua socio-economic system.
DETECTING THE EFFECTS OF NON-SCIENTIFIC ARTIFACT COLLECTING
by
Barbara Blackshear
May 1995
Abstract
This study examined damage caused by the non -scientific collection of artifacts from the surface prehistoric of archaeological sites. Comparison was made examining data from two large cultural resource mitigation projects: Black Mesa Archaeological Project, Northern Arizona and the Animas La Plata Archaeological Project, Ridges Basin, Durango, Colorado. Both natural and cultural processes were considered.
Historically these areas were inhabited by two different cultures. Ridges Basin by Euro-Americans and Utes, and Black Mesa by the Navajo and Hopi. The basic premise of this thesis was that different cultural attitudes toward archaeological sites would result in different nonscientific artifact collecting practices. Folk wisdom tells us that the Native Americans, in this study Navajos, do not disturb archaeological sites for a number of reasons, including fear of the dead. By comparison, it is well documented that the lure of Mesa Verde and it's rich cache of "valuable" artifacts inspired an explosion of early plundering of Southwest Colorado archaeology. Therefore, the model stated that sites on Black Mesa would be much as the ancestral Puebloans left them, with basically intact surface artifact assemblages. Ridges Basin, on the other hand, would be largely devoid of "collectible" artifacts.
The model was tested against ethnographic data. Collection of artifacts since the 1880s is well documented in the Ridges Basin project area. Surprisingly, further research revealed that Navajos also collect artifacts from prehistoric sites. Since both areas were subjected to the collection of artifacts, a new model was proposed stating that both areas were collected and tested against the raw lithic counts from the sample sites. Both surface and subsurface data was compared. Projectile points were chosen because lithics are found on essentially all prehistoric sites. They were used as the object of measure because they are a visible, identifiable, and desirable "collectible". While the data proved to be less than robust, the hypothesis was supported. However, use of projectile points as a feasibility study to determine if they could be used as a gauge in future assessments was not productive.
SINAGUA SUBSISTENCE BEHAVIOR: INFERENCES DERIVED FROM FAUNAL ANALYSIS AT ELDEN PUEBLO
by
Linda M. Blan
May 1997
Abstract
An analysis of faunal remains from Elden Pueblo, a prehistoric Northern Sinagua site, was conducted for the purpose of obtaining information on Sinagua subsistence behavior. The study focuses on material recovered during excavations from the late 1970s to the 1990s at this early agricultural village near Flagstaff.
The faunal remains indicate a high reliance on lagomorphs and rodents whose natural environment was probably affected by the creation of agricultural fields. Disturbed vegetative communities attract these animals and may have affected Sinagua procurement of them as well.
Substantial numbers of deer bones indicate that artiodactyls were also important subsistence resources; and the Sinagua may have had greater leeway in pursuing desirable game due to subsistence agriculture. The results of the study illustrate that animal resources were still important subsistence items for the Sinagua, even after the transition to agriculture was complete.
CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE PREHISTORIC DISTRIBUTION OF SENTINEL BUTTE FLINT IN WESTERN NORTH DAKOTA
by
L. R. Blikre
May 1993
Abstract
The primary goal of this thesis is to examine mobility of prehistoric peoples as it is reflected in the association of use and discard patterns of a lithic raw material,- Sentinel Butte flint (SBF). I use SBF artifacts associated with diagnostic artifacts and dated cultural horizons to examine expected distribution patterns and assemblage characteristics changes over time. I examine SBF assemblage characteristics across source distance in order to examine how the need to transport the material affected the carried SBF. The results are two models of the use of a single lithic raw material. The first model details SBF use over time. The second model details source distance related changes in SBF use. Both models indicate a concentration in the production of bifaces from SBF. Additionally, a reduction in source distance cultural distribution of SBF through time is documented.
MAKING IT THEIR OWN: FOUR CENTURIES OF NAVAJO WEAVING
by
Peter Blystone
August 1992
Abstract
In this study I examine four centuries of Navajo history and worldview. Two paradigms have been evident in past investigations of Navajo weaving. The first paradigm is that weaving has been wholly controlled by foreign influences, and does not represent a Navajo ethos. The second paradigm suggests that outside influences have been relatively unimportant and weaving represents an enduring "deep structure" of Navajo culture. Here, I argue that Navajo blankets and rugs represent an aesthetic that has evolved both from tradition and from outside influences.
I have discussed the history of weaving in order to show that aesthetic syncretism has been an active and vital process since Navajos began weaving. I have examined the blankets and rugs, and talked to weavers and traders. I have analysed what scholars and traders have written about specific external influences on weaving, such as Pueblo and Spanish designs, and commercial dyes and yarns introduced much later through the trading posts. In addition, I have examined how government treaties, Indian policies, economics, depressions, wars and natural disasters created changes which affected the production and design of weavings. In counterpoint to external influences are the forces which maintain the integrity of weaving as an expression of Navajo identity. These internal forces include the transmission of weaving within the family, the social function of sheep, production by household versis professional weavers, female roles and prestige, Navajo philosophy, and possibly most recently a deliberate search for ethnic identity.
This thesis concludes that although the Navajo have undergone extreme and sometimes unpredictable transformations, weavers have continued to represent a Navajo identity and ethos through their work. with each individual and each generation come change and innovation. These changes are influenced by the weaver, the buyer, the economic trends, and the political trends. Yet the underlying theme in every rug is that it is produced by a Navajo who channels these various forces by selecting and responding to some combination of outside demands and internal intention. How these outside forces are understood, interpreted and acted upon must always occur within the context of a person with a history and worldview that are distinctly Navajo. As a result, these weavings have had and will continue to have a distinctly Navajo quality.
AN EXAMINATION OF COHONINA SOCIAL ORGANIZATION THROUGH AN ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC SPACE
by
Travis S. Bone
May 2002
Abstract
The Cohonina culture was first described during the 1930s by Harold Colton and Lyndon Hargrave. John McGregor provided more extensive descriptions of the Cohonina people based upon the excavation of a few sites. The work of these early researchers did much to shape how many archaeologists view the Cohonina today. However, changing paradigms have led modern archaeologists to re-examine our concept of the Cohonina culture.
Thomas Cartledge and Terry Samples have each proposed that the Cohonina culture actually consisted of several independent, locally organized groups that occupied discrete territories within the area of Cohonina occupation. The model of independent groups being included under the category "Cohonina" calls into question the nature of Cohonina social integration. This thesis tests whether any geographical differences exist in the scale of social integration at Cohonina sites. The study includes sites containing public architecture from two subregions in the southern portion of the Coconino Plateau. The hypothesis proposes that significant geographical differences in the scale of social integration existed, implying that the Cohonina label subsumes several potentially distinct subgroups within one category.
ELECTRON MICROPROBE SOURCING OF VOLCANIC ASH TEMPER IN SUNSET RED CERAMICS
by
Richard L. Boston
May 1995
Abstract
The fact that Sunset Crater erupted during prehistoric human occupation of the Flagstaff area, and the apparent coincidental occurrence of volcanic ash-tempered ceramics around A.D. 1065, have proven useful for dating archaeological sites in the Flagstaff region. Presence of Sunset Red, an ash-tempered ceramic type, has been interpreted as one indication that a site was occupied after the eruption of Sunset Crater. Conversely, a lack of ash-tempered ceramics may indicate that a site was occupied before the eruption.
This study investigates two basic assumptions about Sunset Red ceramics. These assumptions are: 1) volcanic ash was not used for ceramic temper by Sinagua potters until after A.D. 1064, and 2) all post-Sunset Crater ash-tempered ceramics were tempered solely with Sunset Crater ash.
I examined volcanic ash from Sunset Crater deposits for morphological differences and compared that volcanic ash to ash from earlier eruptive periods. No consistent patterns were discernible.
Chemical compositional analysis of the same volcanic ash samples using an electron microprobe revealed two chemical signatures. The volcanic glass in the Sunset Crater ash was chemically different from the earlier (Tappan and Merriam Age) ash samples. Volcanic ash-tempered Sunset Red ceramics were also analyzed using the electron microprobe. Quantitative chemical differences were identified in the sample of Sunset Red Ceramics. These differences correspond to the chemical differences identified in the raw volcanic ash samples primarily from Sunset Age eruptions. I could not identify the ash temper in one sherd, and it appears that this unidentified ash comes from a source not yet sampled. One sherd of Sunset Red appears to have been tempered with ash from an earlier period of volcanism.
If, as this study suggests, the Sinagua used non-Sunset Crater ash for temper, we must, at least, be cautious in assuming that Sunset Red is an exclusively post-eruptive ceramic type. This study also suggests that different fall units of Sunset ash might be chemically different enough to permit development of an ash seriation or tephrochronology for the eruptions from Sunset Crater.
SETTLEMENT AND LAND USE IN THE WALNUT CREEK DRAINAGE OF NORTH CENTRAL ARIZONA DURING THE 12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES
by
Jon Michael Bremer
May 1988
Abstract
During the 12th and the beginning of the 13th century Walnut Canyon, located east of present day Flagstaff, Arizona, witnessed an explosive growth in the number of occupation sites. This resulted in the formation of distinctive communities within the canyon and along the rim. It is suspected that the cause for such expansion was related to environmental conditions and changing methods of agriculture. A three tiered theoretical approach involving cultural ecology and the distributions of living surfaces and settlements is used to describe the theoretical underpinnings, the context of the sites and the intersite relationships. The end result is a model of settlement for
the Walnut Canyon locality, in particular, which is indirectly applicable to the Flagstaff area during the same time period.The model was tested using a graph theoretical method, the Minimum Spanning Tree, to verify that the empirical relationships seen were real.
THE FLAGSTAFF CERAMIC TAXONOMY AND CHRONOLOGY: A REEVALUATION
by
Ellen Brennan
December 2003
Abstract
The Flagstaff ceramic taxonomy and chronology were developed during the late1920s through the 1930s. The definitions of the ceramic types identified during that period were linked to researchers' understanding of the relationship between tree-ring data and the ceramic materials associated with them. Traditional type categories appear to have been broadly defined, resulting in extended date ranges for Flagstaff ceramic types. Extended ceramic date ranges limit our ability to examine some types of research questions because the ceramic time scale for the area is not subdivided by increments that are comparable, to say, dendrochronological ones.
Some archaeologists argue that ceramic types are unsuitable units of analysis, suggesting that they are arbitrary devices that have low levels of replicability. These researchers suggest the use of attribute analysis, which investigates the frequency of particular design elements through time, as a more appropriate means of refining ceramicdate ranges. Yet, many archaeologists persist in using types to answer many archaeological questions, especially chronological ones.
Through this research I investigate whether or not types can be viewed as reliableand replicable data sets through the performance of a consensus analysis. Data show that archaeologists can achieve a high level of consensus in placing ceramic types into like categories. These data reveal subtypes among the traditional type categories that may be temporally significant. This information can be used for refining the chronology and typedefinitions of the Flagstaff ceramic tradition.
LATE ARCHAIC EXPANSION IN UPPER GLEN CANYON, SOUTHEASTERN UTAH
by
Peter W. Bungart
May 1990
Abstract
A hearth testing program at open sites in the Orange Cliffs area of upper Glen Canyon was conducted in the late summer and fall of 1988 and the spring of 1989. The results of this study indicate a notable increase in occupation during the Late Archaic period, between ca. 3240-1500 years BP, based on radiocarbon dates from hearth charcoal. Paleoenvironmental research on plant macrofossils at relatively nearby sites on the Colorado Plateau, combined with complementary data from the eastern Great Basin, suggest that this occupational increase may have been influenced by more favorable environmental conditions in upland areas, including the expansion of the pinyon zone.
Although little direct evidence for pinyon exploitation in the Orange Cliffs region was recovered during this study, it is suggested by compelling circumstantial evidence, including environmental factors and regional settlement patterns. Pinyon nuts were easily the most nutritious of plant foods found in the area, and could be harvested and stored in large quantities. In addition, the maturation process involved in seed production may actually have made pinyon nuts a relatively predictable food resource, contrary to popular opinion. This predictability may have been an important factor in Late Archaic settlement and subsistence.
The range of dates is particularly interesting in that five of 11 dated hearths fall between 3000-2000 BP, a period when a cultural hiatus has been proposed for the northern Colorado Plateau. This proposed hiatus has been considered especially important as evidence arguing against cultural continuity between Archaic and later Fremont inhabitants. C-14 hearth dates and site attributes imply that a hunting and gathering emphasis may have persisted in the Orange Cliffs area as late as ca. AD 450, substantially later than the adoption of agriculture in Anasazi areas to the south and east.
HOUSEHOLD ORGANIZATION AT WUPATKI PUEBLO
by
Tim W. Burchett
December 1990
Abstract
The organization of households at Wupatki Pueblo, a 12th century village in the Wupatki Basin of northern Arizona, has been suggested by analyzing four corroborating data sets: 1) wall bond and abutments; 2) chronological data; 3) stratigraphic relationships between living surfaces, floors of room tiers, and midden deposits; and 4) room features. The goal of this research was to determine the composition and activities of households and how they changed during the occupation of the site. Six periods of occupation from before A.D. 1137 to after A.D. 1190 were recognized.
There were at least 26 households and at least four localized lineages present at Wupatki Pueblo,. Before A.D. 1160, localized lineages are hypothesized, but architectural evidence is less conclusive than for the post-A.D. 1160 period. After about A.D. 1160, the households were integrated into sub-village units, or localized lineages, by four or more small communal rooms. The localized lineages were integrated into the village by communal activities conducted in the dance plaza and the ball court. These two large communal structures also probably functioned to integrate surrounding farmsteads of the Wupatki Basin into a community.
The households at Wupatki Pueblo were increasingly concerned with storage, but I suggest that the magnitude of this concern was much less than that shown for several Anasazi sites of the 13th century.
Population trends are suggested. During the early portion of the occupation, the maximum population growth rate at Wupatki Pueblo was probably around five persons, or one household, per year. The middle of the occupation, lasting about 37 years, experienced relative population stability. Subsequent population decline was again at the rate of about five persons or one household per year. Wupatki Pueblo was probably abandoned about A.D. 1220.
RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: A COMPARISON OF TWO SITES IN THE MOCHE VALLEY, PERU
by
Catherine Campbell
May 1998
Abstract
The architecture and location of habitation structures provide clues into the social and political factors driving and forming a community. Elements such as size, construction, spatial distribution, and use of interior space, help archaeologists to better understand prehistoric cultures (Willey 1953; Trigger 1967; Ashmore and Wilk 1988; and Cliff 1988). My research compares architectural elements of excavation and mapping from two prehistoric sites in the Moche Valley, Peru: Santa Rosa-Quirihuac and Ciudad de Dios. Through an inter-site comparison of spatial and architectural differences in habitation structures, I consider room size and variability, construction techniques, and building materials. Examination of these factors allows me to determine whether architectural analysis with a consideration of the pertinent material remains recovered from a sample of structures during excavation. My research illustrates the important role domestic architecture can play in understanding prehistoric culture and how its members expressed themselves through the built environment.
FAUNA, SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS, AND COMPLEX SOCIETY AT THE EL BRUJO COMPLEX, PERU
by
Kendall Campbell
May 2000
Abstract
The desert coast of Northern Peru is one of numerous world regions in which complex societies developed early in prehistory. Exceptional preservation in the arid coastal climate provides an excellent opportunity to study how changes in subsistence correlate with the rise of ranked and stratified society. This thesis examines relationships between the development of the state and broad changes in animal use and exploitation at the site complex of El Brujo located in the Chicama River Valley. The study incorporates the Cupisnique, Moche, and Chimu cultures, spanning over 2500 years of prehistory. Analysis involves understanding the exploitation of faunal resources, the role of fauna procurement in state development and maintenance, and the conditions under which changes in faunal resources come about.
Results of my analysis indicate that subsistence trends change through time with the development of complex society. In addition to an overall decline in faunal frequency through time, the data indicate changes in the types of faunal food and species present. Marine foods dominate the pre-state Early Horizon Cupisnique culture. At the time Moche state level society is emerging in the Early Intermediate Period, marine foods are less dominate and domesticated terrestrial animals are abundant. In the Late Intermediate period, during the time of the Chimu State, the data reveal an interesting shift in dietary practices. Although the abundance of faunal foods continues to decline, no domesticated terrestrial animals are present in the samples and marine species show greater similarity to the Early Horizon data set.
I suggest two possible causal factors correlating with changes in subsistence strategies through time. First, changes in subsistence strategies reflect the expansion of political and economic authority over resource production and distribution. The archaeological record demonstrates increased reliance on agricultural and terrestrial faunal resources in later periods with increasing complexity. Second, if complex societies developed an increased reliance on agricultural foods then the archaeological record would demonstrate a general decrease in the abundance of protein consumed over time.
CLAY AS A FOCUS OF COGNITIVE SYSTEMS: KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEFS OF SCIENTISTS AND PUEBLO POTTERS
by
Janet M. Carey
May 1995
Abstract
This study compares the knowledge and beliefs of scientists regarding the properties and characteristics of clay, with the knowledge and beliefs found about clay in the philosophies and traditions of Southwestern Native American Pueblo potters. The information for this comparison has been gathered through research of the literature and interviews with members of these two cultural communities working with clay concerning their knowledge about clay as a life-assisting/life-making entity.
The scientific beliefs about clay minerals and Pueblo potters, beliefs about clay are each a part of the world view held by these two quite separate and different parts of human culture. This is a study is of two different lines of thought. Each line of thought provides an answer as to how these contrasting cultures perceive the human in the grand scheme of the universe. There is a parallel here between the Native American Pueblos, view and their belief that 'life originated in "Mother Earth," and the scientists, belief that life arose out of the "muck" (dirt/clay), out of the "primordial ooze." The potters are relating to the clay and its characteristic of being able to form a contributing relationship with the potter as she forms a piece of potter; and the scientists are relating to the origin of life through the clay with its crystalline structural characteristics of chemically active surfaces which could have contributed, in the absence of enzymes, to the first protein synthesis. The Pueblo stop with the clay, it is their source; whereas, the scientist goes through the clay with experiments to find an answer. This anthropological study offers the reader the view held by each of these two cultural thought processes regarding the beginnings of living organisms on the Earth.
THE CROSS CANYON CORRIDOR HISTORIC DISTRICT IN GRAND CANYON NATIONAL PARK: A MODEL FOR HISTORIC PRESERVATION
by
Teri A. Cleeland
August 1986
Abstract
This thesis is a comprehensive historic preservation study of the proposed Cross Canyon Corridor Historic District in Grand Canyon National Park. It provides data which are essential for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, such as a history of the trail corridor and associated development areas, a discussion of how the resources relate to identified National Register criteria and themes, and a delineation of district boundaries based on these and other considerations.
National Register nomination is, however, only the first step toward preservation of historic resources. Their integrity must remain intact as well. Physical integrity can be protected by initiating a cyclic maintenance program. Maintenance problems in significant historic structures are identified, and suggestions are made on how to carry out the maintenance program. Architectural integrity can be protected by ensuring that modifications and new construction in the district are compatible with the historic setting. The architectural features which define the overall character of the district are analyzed, and suggestions for new construction are forwarded based on the analysis.
Furthermore, this study explores the relatively new problem of how to delineate boundaries in a rural historic district. The thesis should have practical application for managers of other National Parks who must contend with increasing numbers of historic resources within their jurisdiction, since each year more and more structures attain the 50-year age requirement for inclusion on the National Register.
Some final suggestions are made on how to carry out the recommendations contained in the thesis. With recent federal budget austerity, we can no longer expect the government to bear the full burden of historic preservation. Involvement by state and local governments, corporations, and the public will become increasingly important to the success of federal preservation projects.
REGIONAL MIGRATION AND LOCAL ADAPTATION: A STUDY OF LATE PUEBLO I AND EARLY PUEBLO II SITES IN THE EAST DOVE CREEK AREA
by
Grant D. Coffey
August 2004
Abstract
This thesis examines a local manifestation of the dramatic demographic restructuring in southwestern Colorado during the late A.D. 800s and early A.D. 900s (the late Pueblo I and early Pueblo II period). Regional data indicate a large scale alteration in settlement patterning for much of southwestern Colorado during this period, and much of the information available at present seems to indicate a widespread depopulation of virtually the entire area prior to the establishment of Chaco era settlements in the A.D. 1000s and A.D.1100s. Through this research, I undertook to evaluate the prevailing notion of a widespread migration from the regionduring the late A.D. 800s and early A.D. 900s in light of new data gathered from previously undocumented sites on private land near Dove Creek, Colorado.
This research consisted of two major components. First, I conducted a surface analysis of 17 sites thought to date to the late Pueblo I and early Pueblo II period in an effort to place them in a chronological and demographic framework using existing seriation methods. Second, I attempted to put this new information into a regional context in order to examine the prevailing view of a widespread depopulation of the area during the late A.D. 800s and early A.D. 900s. I believe the findings of this research support alternate adaptive strategies for the late Pueblo I and early Pueblo II period in the Dove Creek area, and perhaps a later date for the near total migration from the area.
TOWARD NEW DIRECTIONS IN SOUTHWESTERN CERAMIC ANALYSIS: DEVELOPING A USE-WEAR METHOD
by
Crystal L. Corwin
May 2000
Abstract
The United States Southwest is recognized for its interesting cultures and rich archeological record. Ceramic analysis has long been a part of southwestern archaeology. Despite the focus on ceramic analysis, few archaeologists have researched the actual function of prehistoric ceramic vessels. The primary goal of this thesis is to develop, test, and evaluate a method for analyzing use-wear on decorated ceramic bowls. Vessels studied were recovered from the Hopi and Rio Grande areas dating from the PIV time period (A- D. 1250-1540). This research demonstrates that determining vessel function is critical first step for a more robust understanding Southwest prehistory.
A CASE STUDY OF ETHNIC IDENTITY AND RELIGION:THE SERBIAN COMMUNITY IN PHOENIX, ARIZONA
by
Helen Kistler Cote
May 1995
Abstract
There are two primary foci of this anthropological study: (1) the existing literature on ethnicity and (2) ethnic identity and the role of religion in ethnic communities. From October 1993 to August 1994, 1 investigated the Serbian community in Phoenix, Arizona. The investigation provided valuable empirical data that is used to answer the guiding questions of the study: what role does religion play in maintaining an ethnic group? and what measures have been implemented to unify the group, compensating for the residential decentralization of the group? Through the application of three existing theories, symbolic ethnicity, fluidity, and voluntary ethnicity, the primary institution of the Serbian community, the Serbian Orthodox Church, is explored.
PLAIN BUT NOT SO ORDINARY: A STUDY OF ALAMEDA BROWN WARE FUNCTION THROUGH TIME
by
Angela M. Crossley
August 2001
ABSTRACT
Interpretations of prehistoric culture change in the Flagstaff area after the A.D. 1064-1065 eruption of Sunset Crater have placed different emphases on migration and exchange. Many archaeologists have studied ceramics to interpret dates of occupation and style boundaries of culture. Until the last decade, ceramics were not analyzed to attempt to answer questions about function and behavior. Very few methodological attribute-based analyses of Alameda Brown Ware ceramics have ever been performed. This type of analysis has been successful in other parts of the country for decorated ceramic assemblages.
I have selected samples of Alameda Brown Ware sherds and whole vessels from 15 sites located in the Flagstaff area. Using measurements of vessel thickness, vessel size, and orifice diameter, I have statistically analyzed the samples of pottery. Results indicate that vessels do increase in size and thickness through time and orifice measurements change through time. I consider that the reasons reflect social and behavioral conditions that could be related to the eruption of Sunset Crater. Changes in pottery appear to co-occur with other changes during the Post-eruptive time. I consider the possibility that less time was spent refining the ceramic technology at this time and that the function of ceramics changed over time as a result of social and environmental factors.
STRESS PRODUCTION AND REDUCTION: EXPLORING A MINDFUL MEDIATION
by
Martha Crowley
May 2004
ABSTRACT
Culture and immune systems interact in a reflexive manner thereby constructing illness and impacting human health and healing. Medical historians argue that common illnesses correlate with the prevailing social conditions of each era and that the impact of such illnesses and health seeking behaviors impact societies and their medical models. In Western societies, this process has led to the dominance and expansion of the biomedical model based on Cartesian dualism. During the late 20th century biomedicine has expanded to corporate proportions and continues to grow by exploiting popular health seeking trends. Such exploitation has included the co-option and application of alternative and spiritual healing modalities. For the purposes of this study these applications are relevant as they are applied to common complaints related to current living conditions. This project involved the presentation of a "stress reduction" program for Northern Arizona University employees teaching mindfulness meditation. The research explores how the participants conceive of and experience "stress" in their day-to-day lives and how their "stress" experiences are impacted by the practice of mindfulness meditation. The participants' descriptions through interviews and journal entries illustrate how their conceptions and experiences of "stress" are related to conditions of living in the late modem era. These data reveal, not only the individuals' experiences of "stress," but also, their contributions to the construction of "stress." While the participants describe their embodiment of the popular "stressmetaphor, they also describe a constant selfrevisioning process. This process involves the continuous scanning of the environment for the ever-changing cultural factors that define success. However, in their attempts to assuage anxieties and secure futures, the participants describe a resulting sense of fragmentation, contraction of time and space, and more "stress." In contrast, their descriptions of mindfulness meditation illustrates the successful embodiment of healing metaphors that interrupt this self-revisioning process and result in a commonly reported sense of wholeness, spaciousness, and timelessness.
SERIATION OF NORTHWESTERN HIGH PLAINS DEBITAGE ASSEMBLAGES
by
Brian Culpepper
May 1998
Abstract
The manufacture of stone tools leaves behind waste flakes known as debitage. Debitage represents the most plentiful, yet under-researched of all types of artifacts left by human activity. Over the past two million years, humans and their ancestors have made a wide array stone tools in many ways. Because they change over time, many types of stone tools, particularly projectile points, serve as temporal markers in both local and regional chronologies. Yet, the potential for debitage to indicate temporal differences between cultural groups has not been fully explored. The archaeological technique of seriation allows for the arrangement of artifact assemblages into successive chronological order for the development of relative chronologies.
In a pilot study, I compare an experimental replicative debitage assemblage produced by myself to two Wyoming archaeological debitage assemblages. The assemblages are, widely separated in time. Each assemblage is made of red Hartville quartzite. My analysis suggests that debitage does not indicate obvious morphological differences over time. Therefore, seriation of debitage may not be possible on the northwestern High Plains.
Beyond general classification, few efforts have been made to specifically relate the characteristics of debitage to stone tool manufacturing processes cross-culturally because flakes tend to look much the same from assemblage to assemblage through time and geographic location. Relating archaeologically recovered material specifically to cultural entities through time without taking into account other evidence does present a difficult set of circumstances for archaeologists. However, this is true for most artifacts and not just debitage. The morphological similarities among debitage assemblages only present a greater challenge. It is my thesis that archaeologists need to make attempts to understand the processes that produce debitage in finer resolution and relate that information specifically to individual and group behavior.
ROCK ART OF THE NORTHERN SINAGUA AREA
by
Diane H. D'Amico
May 1977
Introduction
From 1200 to 600 years ago the area around Flagstaff, Arizona was populated by a group of people known as the Sinagua. Fifty years of archaeological survey and excavation, mostly by individuals associated with the Museum of Northern Arizona, have resulted in a fair body Of knowledge concerning Sinagua artifactual assemblages, ceramics, burial patterns and architecture. Little is known, however, about the rock art of the Sinagua people, although a few Sinagua petroglyphs have been recorded in the Anthropology Department of the Museum of Northern Arizona and the existence of rock art has occasionally been mentioned in the literature about the region. Colton (1960) referred to petroglyph sites at Turkey Tanks, Walnut Canyon, and Picture Canyon; and Wilson (1969) noted the existence of several petroglyph sites in his survey area of the northern Sinagua region.
It appeared probable at the onset of this study that there might be more petrograph sites within the Sinagua locality, since the geographical terrain contains sufficient canyons and basalt outcrops, providing suitable surfaces for rock art.
Preliminary field reconnaissance indicated that there were many more petrograph sites than had been recorded in the Sinagua area, so the first phase of this research consisted of locating and recording these sites. It was hoped that at least 25 sites could be found. Only the area defined as having been occupied by the northern Sinagua (Colton 1949, 1960; Wilson 1969) was studied in detail, although some comparative data was also gathered in frontier areas. Within the Sinagua region, San Francisco Wash, Winona area, Cherry Canyon and Bonita Park area were completely covered while only part of Walnut Canyon, Rio de Flag, Anderson Canyon, Chavez Pass and Mt. Agassiz area was investigated. Unless specifically mentioned, Sinagua will refer to the northern Sinagua area or northern Sinagua people.
An assumption was made at the beginning of this study that any rock art sites found in the area were probably made by the Sinagua people who once lived there. It was further assumed that petrograph sites might be tentatively dated by association with previously dated regions and archaeological sites.
The secondary phase of the study consisted of analyzing the information collected from the rock art both statistically and comparatively with references to rock art from the Anasazi and Cohonina areas to determine what might constitute Sinagua rock art and to determine if the petrograpIhs might be tentatively dated.
Finally three general conclusions were reached: the 40 petrograph sites were located in the northern Sinagua area, providing sufficient evidence to indicate the existence of a rock art tradition for the Sinagua people; the statistical analysis of elements found atthe 40 sites, and the comparison of the quantities of these elements with rock art figures mentioned in the available literature on Anasazi and Cohonina rock art, indicated that Sinagua rock art differed from the Anasazi and Cohonina rock art; petrograph sites in the Sinagua area could be tentatively dated but did not show much change in characteristic elements except for a variation in the total quantity of elements through time.
The first chapter contains a survey of published and unpublished references to rock art in Arizona and definition of terms used throughout the paper. Some of the terminology included in the definitions are interchangeable and have been used by various authors writing about rock art. The survey of references to rock art in Arizona was included for several reasons: when research was begun on this project it was difficult to find the scattered references to rock art in the Sinagua area or in Arizona so any references located were compiled in order to facilitate future study of petrographs. The survey was also included to indicate the relative lack of comprehensive work on rock art in Arizona in hopes that in the future more study will be devoted to the petrographs of various culture groups who once lived in Arizona.
The second chapter comprises a brief history of the Sinagua people and the physical setting in which they lived.
Chapter Three includes a detailed description of procedures used throughout the study, definitions of element types, and, finally, site descriptions for 40 petrograph sites located in the Sinagua area.
Chapter Four deals in several ways with the information which was collected. The first section presents the data in statistical tables and the conclusions drawn from the data, while the second section is concerned with comparing the data accumulated from the Sinagua sites with information gathered from the literature on Cohonina and Anasazi rock art. In the final section of Chapter Four, Sinagua rock art sites are identified with specifically dated Sinagua archaeological sites and areas which have been given time spans in the history of the Sinagua, enabling a tentative placing of the petroghaph sites in chronological order.
The final chapter summarizes the previous data with a definition and tentative dating of Sinagua petrograph tradition.
SOCIO-CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING OF DISABILITY: PERSPECTIVES FROM MEMBERS OF THE HOPI TRIBE
by
Barbara L. Dapcic
August 1995
Abstract
One of the fundamental assumptions made in establishing rehabilitation programs in the U.S. is that a common definition of disability is appreciated and understood by all clients and potential clients. Yet, definitions of disability differ significantly from one culture to another and vary among subgroups within the same culture. This "common" notion of disability does not take into account a multicultural understanding of disability that arises when service providers and clients come from different cultural milieus.
Current research regarding services available to American Indians with disabilities indicates that the conception of disability varies from tribe to tribe and differs from Western conceptions. As a result, barriers are created through intercultural miscommunication between the American Indian client and (in most cases) the Anglo health care/social service provider.
This paper will focus on Hopi conceptions of disability. The Hopi are a Western Pueblo tribe located in northern Arizona. The data derive from semi-structured interviews conducted off the reservation, in Flagstaff, Arizona. The interviews address questions concerning Hopi attitudes and labels related to disability.
This study will contribute to filling the void in anthropological literature focusing on Hopi disability issues. Additionally, access to this information will help to bridge the gap in cultural understanding between rehabilitation practitioners and people from different cultures with disabilities, allowing for better delivery of services.
AN ETHNOGRAPHIC CASE STUDY OF ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND HOPIS CONCERNING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
by
Natalie E. Davenport
May 1996
Abstract
In 1994, the Hopi Tribe expressed their need to place access restrictions on their intellectual property and, in accordance, they requested a moratorium be placed on access to Hopi archival materials. An ethnographic case study, based on an analysis of six interviews, was conducted to explore current Hopi and anthropological views about the Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) issue and to learn more about the Hopi Tribe's request. Results of the analysis indicated seven dominant themes that characterized the interviews. The three Hopi informants emphasized Themes of Economics and Themes of Authority, while popular themes for the three local anthropologists included Real Life Examples, Hypothetical Examples, Themes of Control and Restriction, and Themes of Freedom and Accessibility. Interestingly, both groups frequently referred to concepts of Respect and Stewardship while discussing the issue of IPR. Results indicated that Hopis and anthropologists have different views on IPR, but more importantly, the analysis suggests a positive working relationship could be achieved based on their similar understandings of two concepts, Stewardship and Respect.
Due to the small samples of both informant groups, the dominant themes identified in this research project cannot be generalized to the larger population of Hopis and anthropologists at this time.
A MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF STONE CIRCLES FROM THE NORTHWESTERN PLAINS
by
William Ernest Davis
April, 1982
Abstract
Stone circles are often thought to be the remains of a tipi. Frequently the identification is based upon inadequate knowledge of the characteristics and limitations of this type of structure. Furthermore, the traditional interpretation of stone circles as tipi rings is often accepted without question and new ideas are constructed upon uninformed inferences.
Research during the past 30 years on the Northwest Plains has revealed that a number of these configurations do not fit the mould implied by the term "tipi ring" and may be non-domestic in nature. A review of the ethnographic data on Plains Indians shows a variety of structures utilizing stones. Some of the structures were ceremonial, some were related to hunting and others to more specialized activities. The use of stones to anchor tipis is only one such use.
An analysis was conducted to distinguish the "tipi ring" configurations from other stone configurations during the Copper Mountain Development Project, Shoshoni, Wyoming. out of 113 stone circles, a representative sample of eight different morphological stone circle types have been excavated. Five multiple working hypotheses were developed to compare the morphological variations of the Copper Mountain assemblage with ethnographic traits of the Plains Indian tipi, its transport and locational settlement strategies.
Results of the analysis suggests that the majority of the stone es do represent the remains of domestic structures and that remains are more likely to be interpreted as "tipi rings" ,are other stone configurations of the Copper Mountain Project assemblage.
CHANGING LITHIC TECHNOLOGIES AND RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY DURING THE ARCHAIC-BASKETMAKER II TRANSITION
by
Maria M. Dawson
May 2003
Abstract
The Archaic-Basketmaker II transition is one of the most monumental prehistoric transitions in the American Southwest. Relatively mobile hunter-gatherer populations transitioned to a more sedentary lifeway. The economy once based on hunting and gathering shifted to one primarily based on maize agriculture. Significant changes occurred during this transition. For example, the levels of social-political organization became more complex, division of labor roles changed, populations increased, and change in the levels of mobility occurred.
The primary goal of this research is to detect change in mobility levels of prehistoric populations through the analysis of lithic assemblages. The proposed research uses Parry's and Kelly's model (1987), which correlates expedient and formal tool industries with levels of mobility. In their model, Parry and Kelly assert that levels of mobility can be measured according to technological strategies. They propose that formal technology correlates with the lifeway of highly mobile hunter-gatherer groups and that expedient technology correlates to relatively more sedentary groups. In this study, I analyze lithic assemblages from the Butler Wash region of southeastern Utah and the Navajo Mountain region to detect shifts in the degree of residential mobility for prehistoric populations. The prehistoric groups involved lived during Archaic and Basketmaker II periods in the northern Southwest. More specifically, this research focuses on mobility levels that have implications for agricultural intensity and the degree of social organization during the Archaic-Basketmaker II transition.
My objective is to detect if change in lithic technology occurred during the Archaic-Basketmaker II transition or whether it occurred between the White Dog and later Basketmaker; II phases, and if the shift in lithic technology correlates with a shift in residential mobility. I hypothesize that both White Dog phase and later phase Basketmaker II lithic assemblages should exhibit a shift form a more formal to a more expedient technology if White Dog phase and later phase Basketmaker II populations became relatively sedentary after the adoption of domesticates. An examination of lithic assemblages from the Butler Wash and the Navajo Mountain regions indicate that White Dog phase Basketmaker II populations relied on a more formal technology. In contrast, the lithic assemblages from the Navajo Mountain area indicate that late phase Basketmaker II populations shifted to a more expedient technology. Thus White Dog phase Basketmaker II populations are characterized as staying relatively mobile, while later phase Basketmaker II populations become more sedentary.
AN APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF DRIP IRRIGATION IN THE NAVAJO COMMUNITY OF TUBA CITY
by
Audrey E. Deaton
May 1994
Abstract
The Navajo farming community of Tuba City is approached from the perspective that it is a system composed of environmental, economic, political and social structural, and ideological components. These components form the basis of the applied appropriate technology assessment. This study: 1) determines whether drip irrigation constitutes an appropriate technology when applied in this community and 2) records farmers' responses to and opinions regarding this technology. All components as well as the technology are explored to determine their role in maintaining the sustainability of this drip irrigation project.
CREATING A NEW TRIBE AN EXAMINATION OF IDENTITY MAINTENANCE AMONG URBAN NATIVE AMERICAN MALES
by
Christopher C. Deere
December 2001
Abstract
In the United States, the growing population of Native Americans coupled with the continuous move of Native peoples away from traditional lands and into urban centers provides a challenge for individuals who are seeking to maintain their identities as Native Americans. Flagstaff, Arizona is one area where this movement is taking place. This study explores the dynamics that aid and hinder the individual Native American in the maintenance of their ethnicity. I utilized a sample of the Native American population in Flagstaff, specifically Native American males between the ages of 20 and 40, to complete a questionnaire that specifically asks about social networks, language usage, child rearing practices, traditional practices, and the participant's views on what it means to be Native American. Further, I looked at the social relationships of the participants, worked with a focus group designed to examine the issues mentioned, and conducted public observations of the community in an attempt to understand how the Native population in Flagstaff view themselves and deal with the issue of identity maintenance.
With these methods I found a correlation between social ties, educational practices, social functions, and family life with the individual's ability and desire to maintain their identity as Native American. These findings will be geared towards providing information for community organizations that deal with Native Americans. The hope is that these groups can utilize the information to help the individual Native American (and secondarily the community) to maintain their identity as Native.
THE FACTORS INFLUENCING LOG TECHNOLOGY IN NORTHERN ARIZONA
by
Jeri Lynn DeYoung
December 1993
Abstract
This study examines the factors influencing horizontal log technology on the Coconino National Forest in northern Arizona. Fifty-five log structures built during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were randomly selected for this analysis. The structures were chosen from a list of log buildings compiled over several years of survey by Forest archaeologists. Photographs, site forms and my own observations were used to identify and record construction features such as notch type and log shape for each building.
The relative frequency of construction features suggests a log building tradition for northern Arizona. Log structures on the Coconino National Forest were built primarily using round logs and V notching, log sill foundations and simple floor plans.
Factors such as the environment, industry, and the culture history of a builder influenced the shape of log construction brought to northern Arizona. Horizontal log technology as it was practiced in the eastern United States was reconfigured to meet the conditions and needs of Flagstaff's first settlers.
Studying the settlement period log structures of northern Arizona contributes to our understanding of life in a frontier environment and the social, cultural, political, economic and environmental conditions that shaped their form. The buildings reflect the assumptions, values and attitudes of the individuals who made or used them, and also reflect the belief patterns of the larger society of which they are a part.
THE CONNECTION BETWEEN WORLDVIEWS AND PRACTICES AMONG ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE PRACTITIONERS
by
SHAYNA J. DIAMOND
May 2004
ABSTARACT
My initial interests for this thesis came from my fascination with alternative medicine use in American culture. The juxtaposition of alternative medicine and American culture presented to me contradictions that characterized the "otherness" of alternative medicine. This otherness comes from being associated with the new age movement and holistic health movement. Looking at the qualities of these movements helps to place the use of alternative medicine in American Culture.
In order to narrow my focus further, I chose massage therapists, or body workers, as the representative for the greater alternative medicine community. The body workers used in this research provide hands-on therapies in professional practices in northern Arizona
I am defining culture here as made up of worldviews (i.e. ideals, intentions, schemas, beliefs, the "mental" aspect of being human), material goods ("cultural objects") and observable behaviors/ practices/performances. My intent is to find connections between worldviews and practices held by massage therapists. In researching these connections I found that the body, the act of reflecting, and liminality were all used as tools for transformation during a session.
My research allows us to witness practice as a re-creation, projection, and embodiment of worldviews, among massage therapists by using theories of performance and experience. This attention to performance involves the discerning of meaning and helps identify the characteristics of the worldview. Performance suggests social interactions, and hence speaks to social relations created during performance. The therapist's authority of meaning during a session remains the pillar of the performance's capability to attain a transition.
As the title of my thesis indicates, my ethnography is about the worldviews held by alternative medicine practitioners, specifically the cultural domain of massage therapists, and how these worldviews are connected to the practitioner's practice during a session. I collected data via interviews, observation, participant observation, and finally in validation sessions.
TEN THOUSAND YEARS OF LAND USE AT THE HALL RANCH LOCALITY NEAR SPRINGERVILLE ARIZONA
by
Robert Dudley Diggs
Abstract
The Northern Arizona University Field School conducted field work in 1974, 1975, and 1976 at the Hall Ranch locality near Springerville, Arizona.
At least 23 sites and 6 episodes of utilization are identified. The earliest evidence is a single fluted projectile point suggesting Paleo-Indian presence. However, the earliest intensive use appears to have been during Late Paleo-Indian or Early Archaic times. This is followed by a later Archaic use. A fourth period is radiocarbon dated between A.D. 700 and 900. A fifth episode is a single pithouse dated ceramically between A.D. 1050 and 1100, although use could have continued until A.D. 1200. A historic occupation, a Mexican Ranch, is dated to the 1880s. The utilization of the locale from hunting and gathering to sporadic agricultural use and finally settlement is presented during each episode and the major discoveries are described and examined.
Two sites associated with the Paleo-Indian or Early Archaic appear to have been hunting and processing loci. Projectile point forms recovered indicate use between 6000 and 5500 B.C. and it is proposed that implements collected on these sites were used in skinning and scraping hides; the cutting of wood and bone. No pollen data were obtained from this period.
Projectile points recovered from the valley and a base camp with 12 structures and walls indicate use during the Archaic. Analysis of debitage indicates that the quarring and initial processing was conducted at another location. Palynologically, two periods of utilization can be noted at the site. These episodes, reflect either disturbance or usage with conditions of biseasonal rainfall, and summer flash floods. A possible Zea grain suggests the utilization of corn.
A series of stone walls and stone-lined shafts, dating between A.D. 700 and 900 were constructed around the southern end of a north-south valley between several lava flows, suggesting the prehistoric peoples used the locale for the communal procurement of animals (most likely antelope). The pollen record from the stone-lined shafts revealed that the past environment remained near present conditions, although environmental shifts can be noted.
A pithouse ceramically dated between A.D. 1050 and 1100 was apparently used intermittently or seasonally. The pollen data indicate the use of Cheno-Ams during late summer and fall. The slight increases in composites and juniper pollen may reflect a slightly more mesic condition during this period with increased effective winter moisture but warm temperatures may have prevailed.
Two houses are associated with the Hispanic sheep herders during the 1880s. This settlement was the first permanent habitation in the locality.
SOCIAL VARIATION IN DIET: BOTANICAL REMAINS AT HUANCACO, PERU
by
Genevieve Dionne
May 2002
ABSTRACT
"Social relations within a society are cultivated through food" {Gumerman 2002:1). Food constitutes the fuel of life, and societies, modem and prehistoric, are organized around food procurement. Archaeologists and paleoethnobotanists currently study plant remains to understand prehistoric societies. This thesis uses macro botanical remains to explore the social implications of plant remains at Huaneaco, an archaeological site on the North Coast of Peru, dating to the Early Intermediate Period {AD 200 to AD 800). The study pursues three main objectives: the inventory of the macro botanical remains, the analysis of the spatial distribution of the remains, and a comparison with the plant remains found at other sites of the same tame period.
Excavations were conducted at Huancaco during the summer of 2001. Soil samples were collected and analyzed for the presence of macro botanical remains that were subsequently identified and counted. Results indicate that at least two different social groups inhabited the site and were involved in a dynamic relationship. The results of the study have broad implications far research on the North Coast of Peru. First, the results confirm a pattern elaborated by Gumerman (1994} stipulating that more varied plant resources occur in domestic contexts, compared to a lesser variety in monumental contexts. This model of food consumption may be useful for other researchers. Second, the high frequency of plant remains demonstrate the importance of fine screening and of adequate methods for macro botanical sampling. Lastly, my research confirms that food is organized and consumed according to social status at Huancaco during the Early Intermediate Period of the North Coast of Peru.
TONGANS IN THE UNITED STATES: THE RESULTS OF CENSUS 2000
by
David L. Dixon
December 2003
Abstract
In the West, there is a popular view that capitalist policies will act to lessen global economic inequities. Theoretically grounded in free market capitalist theory, this view of economic convergence is also embodied in the folk theory of the American Dream, the pervasive idea that anyone who has the ability can succeed in this system because of the individual freedoms we enjoy. This promise of economic opportunity created by the American system draws people from around the world in search for increased opportunities for themselves and their families. In this study, I look at the prospects of economic convergence for a new immigrant group in the United States from the Pacific Island Kingdom of Tonga.
I ask three main questions in this study of Tongans in the United States to shed light on the contemporary immigrant experience in America. Do America's capitalist institutions ultimately result in the equalization of economic disparities among Tongan immigrants and other Americans? Are people able to do well in this system if given enough time regardless of where they come from or what they look like? Is it possible to succeed economically and maintain one's native culture?
This study cannot answer these questions completely, but will add to the discussion of these issues faced by Tongan immigrants. My findings will show some of the ways that Tongans are adapting to life in the United States and how these adaptations vary by the structural circumstances in which they live. It will also expose how census data can be used to guide future ethnographic research in order to comment on these questions and the Tongan-American experience more fully.
Additionally, the findings will also have implications for the nation of Tonga. Remittances sent to Tonga by immigrants have become a main source of currency for the nation and source of social mobility for family members who remain behind. The sustainability of the transnational strategy of mobility, both nationally and socially, may depend on how Tongan migrants fare in their new countries.
SIMULATING STRUCTURATION THEORY: EXPLANATIONS AND REFLECTIONS ON THE COMPUTER MODELING PROCESS
by
Sean Downey
May 2003
Abstract
This thesis uses computer simulation modeling techniques to explore structuration theory. I created a simulation model based on Paul Willis's 1977 ethnography, Learning to Labor, ran several controlled experiments, and analyzed the results. Throughout these descriptions and analyses, I comment on the process of combining social theory, ethnography, and simulation modeling so that the reader can understand the strengths and limitations of this approach in cultural anthropology. The primary goal is to demonstrate to the anthropological audience how simulation modeling can contribute to anthropological theory.
The second goal of this thesis is to contribute to the ongoing theoretical debate among researchers, such as Giddens, who have attempted to reconcile individual agency with social structure. In Learning to Labor, the creative and culturally informed anti-structural actions of the "lads" (young working-class boys) against their school actually facilitate the reproduction of a necessary component of the capitalist structure—working-class labor. Two computer models are created to model distinct and codependent aspects of structuration theory. These models are then used to conduct "virtual" social experiments that will either validate or critique aspects of structuration theory by exploring the sensitivity and robustness of each modeled theory. The results of these tests are analyzed as they pertain to anthropological understanding of the relationship between individual agency and social structure.
SUCCESS AND FAILURE OF COMMUNITY SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE FARMS IN WASHINGTON STATE
by
Douglas A. Duncan
December 1997
Abstract
Based on data gathered through ethnographic interviews, participant observation, and archival research, this thesis examines the success and failure of five CSA farms in Washington state. Patterns emerged from this data concerning difficulties CSA farmers faced during the 1996 season. The data show that there are specific attributes associated with successful CSA operation and that farms that do not address these attributes have difficulties achieving success. I use three theoretical perspectives to analyze this data holistically. Findings demonstrate that economic factors, like supply and demand, are highly related to success. Socio-cultural factors also emerged from the data as important factors related to farmers' decisions to continue farming. I consider these factors together with the economic attributes to explain why some CSA succeed while other fail.
SUBSISTENCE AND DIET AT QUASAR, A MIDDLE ARCHAIC SITE IN THE LOWER ILLINOIS RIVER VALLEY
By
Jennifer Eberlien
December 1998
Abstract
This study presents the analysis of 93 archaeobotanical samples from Quasar (11 GE 13 3), a Middle Archaic site (6,500 to 4,010 B.P.) established to procure and process floodplain resources on the lower Illinois River valley in Greene County, Illinois. Objective One of the study determined the plant portion of the diet of Quasar residents and if their diet changed throughout 4,500 years of occupation. The results indicate that Quasar residents, which most likely were women, relied upon thick-shelled Carya spp. (hickory) nuts for the majority of their diet; however, other plants available in the environment supplemented those recovered from the archaeobotanical. samples.
With the aid of a scanning electron microscope, three domesticated Chenopodium berlandieri ssp. jonesianum (domesticated goosefoot) seeds were identified from the earliest and the most recent occupation of zones of Quasar. Quasar produced the earliest recorded Chenopodium berlandieri ssp. jonesianum seed, 6,500 B.P., in the Midwest. Based on the presence of these seeds, Quasar residents practiced some form of cultivation, such as gardening.
Objectives Two and Three compared Quasar archaeobotanical data to other Middle Archaic sites. These comparisons were made in an effort to better understand how Quasar fits into the regional subsistence model and general site hierarchy developed for the lower Illinois River valley. Quasar data compared favorably to the general wood, nutshell, and seed data from five other Middle Archaic sites. However, Quasar did not compare well to data from specific site types. Quasar archaeobotanical data support the prediction that Quasar is a floodplain site established in the fall to procure and process a variety of food items, but most especially shellfish, nuts, and Chenopodium berlandieil ssp. jonesianum.
Objective Four compared Quasar archaeobotanical data to four Late Archaic sites' to investigate differences between the two cultural periods. Quasar data and the Late Archaic data were similar in terms of wood and nutshell remains. However, seeds appeared more frequently and at a greater variety in the Late Archaic sites than at Quasar, indicating that seed frequency and seed types may be an archaeobotanical indicator to differentiate between Middle Archaic and Late Archaic sites.
"HER VOICE IS PART OF BALANCING THE WORLD...": THE STATUS OF HAUDENOSAUNEE WOMEN
By
Mary-Jayne Engel
December 1996
Abstract
This thesis is a descriptive and interpretative study of Haudsenosaunee social structures. It is also the study of the processes involved when an expected result, based on the anthropologcial record, goes awry in the course of data collecting. It is subject specific, but may be applicable to the study of other cultures. It began as a premise that suggested the Haudenosaunce were female-centered, a term I coined based on the historic record and anthropological literature. During the interviews, consultants modified my concept of female-centeredness at it related to their societies and emphatically rejected the concept of hierarchy when I associated it with female-centeredness. 'Me consultants also unanimously expressed a desire for better understanding of their cultures. Their modification of my premise became equally as important as my desire to investigate why they claimed to be misunderstood despite hundreds of years of contact with the dominant Anglo, Western European culture(s).
This thesis became a quest for an explanation of what caused my misperception and weaves through the analysis of language and untranslatable cultural concepts and into an examination. of the posture of the anthropologist, all of which overtly contribute to misunderstanding. Working with warp and woof, my two threads diverge and ultimately converge to create a unified whole. One thread descriptively weaves the rocess of discovery and offers an explanation of the cause-and-effect of misperceptions about the Haudenosaunce. The other weaves a picture of their social fabric.
As part of the process, this thesis suggests that the root of misunderstanding derives from two different core concepts subconsciously held by the two different cultures. I refer to one core concept as Duality Theory which has been commonly attributed as the basis for Western European/Anglo linear/binary ddnking. In addition, I develop Unitary Theory with its graphic form of a circle to represent the Haudenosaunce core concept of interconnectness. Unitary Theory offers a different way of thinking dig hopefully, results in avoiding the misunderstandiags~ misperceptions and misreadings that are inherent in some anthropological and historic interpretations about the Haudenosaunce. This thesis began with a premise and, thanks to grounded theory, achieves two major goals: It promotes better understanding and contributes to a healthier body of anthropological knowledge.
ARCHAIC SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN CROWELL AND TRUSCOTT RESERVOIRS, FOARD AND KNOX COUNTIES, TEXAS.
By
Gerald Meeks Etchieson
December 1980
Abstract
A total of 86 sites were identified as having Archaic components in the Crowell and Truscott reservoirs. Sites with Archaic components are defined as those sites containing one or more of two characteristic artifact classes: dart points and/or gouges,
Sites in each reservoir were examined in relation to their age (as determined by dart point chronology), kind of site, and location within the valley. Three kinds of sites are identified: camps, quarries, and lithic scatters, Outside influences are also examined. It is believed that the Archaic populations who inhabited the two areas were not permanent inhabitants, but rather only exploited the resources, perhaps seasonally.
It is suggested that the breaks along the North Wichita and Pease rivers were utilized throughout most of the Archaic Stage. The gouges suggest an early occupation while most of the dart points indicate later use. It appears that the major point of contact of these populations was to the south in the Edwards Plateau area of Central Texas. This is based on the high occurrence of Edwards flint debris and artifacts as well as a similarity in dart point types, Components of most of the Archaic sites in the study area bear strong resemblance to the Summers Complex in southwestern Oklahoma, also suggested to be related to the Central Texas Archaic cultures.